Ethical Issues of Genetic Testing in Pediatrics Research Proposal

Ethical Issues of Genetic Testing in Pediatrics - Research Proposal Example has traditionally necessitated that future parents be presented with detailed information and then be permitted to select which genetic diagnostic screening or test to use. Because of high opinion for reproductive decision-making and confidentiality in the area of genetics, and to put off misuses and exploitations such as efforts at eugenic control, practically every genetic counselor promotes the principle of value-neutral counseling and self-determining decision making. This framework is theoretically interesting, and in operates finely in contexts where knowledgeable and experienced counselors are available and inexpensive, and where counselors and patients have a common cultural context (Heyman, 2001). However, the demands of regular prenatal care make it problematic basically to reverse this ethical perspective into the obstetric care clinic. The population of patients is quite large; there is insufficient time as it is to address patients’ physical and psychological requirements, and there are oftentimes quite obvious discrepancies between the social and cultural contexts of pediatrics health care specialists and their patients. Furthermore, genetic counselors have traditionally commonly been able, on the basis of particular clinical suggestions, to concentrate their mind on one health disorder or symptom at a time, whereas in the future, decision-making will most probably embrace a broad scale of circumstances for which future parents may be at no specific elevated risk. In the expression a public health professionals, the issue will hence be related to screening rather than the testing itself (Kolker, 1994). There are also ethical issues of substance that assert in favor of a fresh framework for presenting counsel to future parents. Most significantly, the gains of extensive screening have yet to be acknowledged, and there are possible troubles that as well demand examination, including elevated levels of anxiety regarding the pregnancy of regarding

Dissertation Proposal Essay Example for Free

Dissertation Proposal Essay With the current day international business scenario being marked by severe competition, escalating inflation, different cost manufacturing locations, rapid technological transition and the surfacing of fresh markets in the developing economies, business firms view the realisation of economic and superior quality operational ability to be critical to the obtaining of international competitive superiority. Competitive advantage feel is achieved through the ability of utilising the particular faculties and chief capabilities of business firms and in swiftly responding to client needs and customer ideas, rather than from differentiating marketplace offerings or in accomplishing cost and quality control (Gerber Lankshear, 2000). Viewed in a broader angle, marketplace superiority comes about from the facility of the organisation to transform business abilities and manufacturing expertise into fundamental competencies that allow and empower corporations to bend, adjust and modify behaviour to exploit fresh business opportunities and dynamic conditions (Gerber Lankshear, 2000). Corporate leaderships are increasingly viewing the efficient utilisation of human resources to be fundamental to the accomplishment of business success (Kozlowski Others, 1997). As opposed to the long-established stress on technically empowering and concrete assets, such as factories and machinery, business leaders are evermore accepting that firms can obtain distinguishing strengths and capabilities through soft methods like robustly distinct and workforce empowering working environments, work oriented management systems, and well developed employee abilities (Kozlowski Others, 1997). Business superiority, experts argue, can be assisted and enhanced with a better skill employee force that allows firms to react to market needs concerning costs, quality, product features, and other issues. Much of the challenges faced by HRM practitioners arise from the evolution of workforce members, who in recent years have assumed vital roles in contemporary organisations that typically operate in fast globalising, technologically transforming, and essentially knowledge dominated environments. With employees being recognised as key to organisational success, the task of utilising their capabilities for furthering organisational goals has never been more complex and demanding (Kozlowski Others, 1997). The provisioning of training is considered to be essential for employee development. Whilst training has long been recognised as an important tool for improving employee ability and productivity, recent developments, more specifically the growth of the knowledge economy, technological advances, and sharply increased competition have reinforced its need for the achievement of competitive advantage, leading most progressive companies to develop and implement sophisticated training and retraining programmes for their employees. â€Å"The significance and value of training has long been recognized. Consider the popular and often repeated quotation, â€Å"Give a person a fish and you feed him for a day. Teach a person to fish and you feed him for a lifetime. † This simple but profound saying is attributed to the wisdom of Confucius who lived in the 5th century BC. Given today’s business climate and the exponential growth in technology with its effect on the economy and society at large, the need for training is more pronounced than ever. † (Danziger Dunkle, 2005) Much of the training for new employees in the current environment consists of emphasising the importance of technology, motivating them to use it to their advantage, and making them conversant and familiar with new technologies like computers, websites, and online supply chain, sales and customer relationship management. 2. Aims and Objectives The Aims and Objectives of the proposal are thus finalised as follows: Aim: To investigate the effectiveness of training in motivating employees to learn and use modern technology Objectives: 1. To ascertain the organisational and individual benefits from imparting training to employees in areas of computers, Internet and online applications 2. To ascertain the modes of training used by companies to improve the knowledge and skills of their employees 3. To ascertain employee attitudes towards training 4. To investigate into the reasons for positive and negative employee attitudes towards new technology in areas of computers, Internet and on-line applications. 3. Literature Review The Importance of Training Management experts are in current times constantly emphasising on the importance of employee strength, calibre, and potential, for the achievement of business and profitability objectives. Marking a radical departure from the past when greater importance was placed on tangible assets like land, plant, and capital, modern managers think of employee strength to be the fundamental attribute of a business organisation (King, Others, 2001). Whilst management practitioners continue to be ambivalent towards the applicability of different HR theories like those espoused by the Harvard and Michigan schools, the Best Fit and Best Practice theories, and the Guest and Storey models, all experts are unanimous in their advocacy of the need for high quality training in today’s fast changing business scenario (King, Others, 2001). Training, in its most basic form can be labelled as an action that alters people’s behaviour. Whilst improvement of productivity is often termed the chief reason for imparting training, it is but one of its many advantages. Training is necessary not just for augmentation of productivity but also to inspire and encourage workers by informing them of the importance of their functions and empowering them to operate efficiently (Danziger Dunkle, 2005). â€Å"The general benefits available from training are listed below: †¢ increased job satisfaction and morale †¢ increased motivation †¢ increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain †¢ increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods †¢ increased innovation in strategies and products †¢ reduced employee turnover† (Danziger Dunkle, 2005) The fundamental aim of training is to help organisations in achieving their objectives by adding value to their key resource, namely their employees. Developing employee competencies, helping people to grow and fulfil greater responsibilities, and reducing the on-job learning time of employees, training provides immense benefits to both individuals and organisations and helps by developing individual, team, group, and organisational competencies, reducing learning costs, improving operational efficiencies and attracting superior talent (King, Others, 2001). It increases employee commitment, helps in managing change, leads to a positive organisational culture, and helps in increasing levels of customer service (King, Others, 2001). Much of the need for high quality and evolving training programmes arises from the needs of modern businesses to cope satisfactorily with changing customer needs, technological advances, introduction of new products, and evolution in working methods. The success of legendary companies like Toyota (in the automobile industry), the Ritz Carlton, (in the hospitality industry) and FedEx (in the courier business) is attributed in substantial part to the quality of their training programmes and their corporate commitment to training (Statt, 2000). With many companies paying lip service to training during boom times, only to slash training budgets at the first sign of economic downturn, training programmes, experts feel, need to be carried out consistently in order to be successful. Whilst satisfaction of training needs are far more important today than in the past because of competitive pressures for enhancement of employee efficiency, business productivity and competitive advantage, much of the training effort in modern day organisations is expended purely because of the need to keep old and new employees abreast of technological changes and developments (Statt, 2000). Technological change is now impacting every area of business life. Although rapid technological change in the past was associated with a few industries like automobiles, pharmaceuticals and computers, its impact today is far more pervasive and far-reaching, affecting a wide spectrum of manufacturing and services in businesses as diverse as hotels, restaurants, travel agents, call centres, banks, insurance companies, BPOs, and retail shops (Statt, 2000). For many small and medium businesses all over the world, technological and operational change has been driven by increasing use of computers, advances in software, and the Internet for online applications (Driscoll, 1999). Such is the pervasive nature of computers in today’s business environment that an employee workforce without competence in the area could severely restrict the operational capabilities and competitive advantage of business firms (Driscoll, 1999). This requirement has also created a need for training in computers and has moreover spawned a huge training industry. â€Å"Interest in Information Technology (IT) education grows daily due to the pervasive influence of computing and knowledge technologies. Knowledge options include training, formal education, certification, books, Internet, etc. indeed many show interest in training as more career opportunities crop up in IT. The flexibility provided by training is certainly a major factor in this regard. † (Awe, 2008) Training methods and barriers The scope and quality of workplace training in computing skills has expanded exponentially in the course of the last two decades. â€Å"Virtually all modern organizations accept that a well-trained workforce is a critical success factor. American organizations spend more than $62 billion per year on formal training of their employees. It is impossible to estimate the full costs of the additional informal training that occurs. Ability to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) is among the most important skills that many employees need. Yet there is more speculation than wellgrounded, factual knowledge about the kinds of training regarding work-related computing to which most employees are exposed. † (Danziger Dunkle, 2005) Very much a specialised function, organisational training is provided by trained in-house or external personnel. Whilst it is normal for large organisations to have their own training departments, most medium and small organisations handle their training requirements through external trainers. Training can also be distinguished on a number of facets, two of them being the degree to which there is interaction and collaboration with others and the extent of its formality. â€Å"Training for work-related computing comes in a variety of forms, ranging from formal, scheduled classroom instruction to spur-of-the-moment sessions with a co-worker to self-based trial and error efforts. Both organizations and individual workers make choices regarding the selection of training methods. † (Danziger Dunkle, 2005) Whilst there are various methods of training, they can be divided into two basic groups, cognitive and behavioural. Trainers, as such, need to take account of the advantages and disadvantages of the two methods, as also their impact on trainees keeping their previous background and skills in mind (King, Others, 2001). Cognitive methods are used to provide theoretical training; they are associated with achieving changes in knowledge and attitudes through the use of lectures, demonstrations, discussions, and computer based training (King, Others, 2001). Behavioural methods on the other hand are more suited for provisioning of practical training. Ideally suited for skill development the behavioural approach allows the trainee to behave as required through a combination of games, simulations, case studies, and role plays (King, Others, 2001). The method by which training is provided also depends upon the requirements of the organisation, the employees who are to be trained, and upon the activities and tasks that are involved (Wentland, 2003). The training method chosen should as such be structured to suit the target addressees, the substance, the business setting, and the training and education objective (Wentland, 2003). The optimum method should motivate trainees to become skilled, assist them to get ready for learning, allow the students to use and practice what they imbibe, help trainees absorb and pass on what they have come to know, and combine performance with other expertise (Wentland, 2003). Management Development Methods are more futuristic in nature and deal with education. Divided into two broad segments on-the-job and off-the-job, managerial abilities are developed through coaching, mentoring, job rotation, and job instruction techniques, (on-the-job), and sensitivity training, transactional analysis, and simulation (off-the-job) exercises (Wentland, 2003). A number of barriers to the imparting of appropriate and high quality training still remain, despite the widespread understanding of its need, as also its rapid evolution in recent years (Ndahi Gupta, 2000). Most such barriers arise from management attitudes and approaches, with some company leaderships still viewing training as an avoidable luxury. Training also suffers because of lack of suitable training provision, financial implications and the fear of work disruption (Ndahi Gupta, 2000). On occasions managements face training challenges because of lack of suitable courses, indecisiveness on whom to train, the lack of workers to fill up when employees go on training and similar other issues (Ndahi Gupta, 2000). 4. Methodological Approach Taking account of the aims and objectives of the research assignment, along with the information obtained in the course of the literature review, the research questions are determined as under: †¢ What are the benefits likely to accrue to companies and individuals from training programmes? †¢ What are the most important hurdles to successful imparting of training? †¢ How can barriers to training be overcome, especially in the context of modern skill requirements in areas of computers and the Internet? Whilst the review of literature has provided significant extant material on training issues in business, the dissertation also calls for analysis of primary information from actual responses and cross validating them with the inferences reached from the literature review. There being two broad methods for analysis of primary information, namely qualitative and quantitative, the actual methodological approach will depend upon the research situation, and the aims and objectives of the dissertation proposal. Quantitative methods are by and large used for research into the opinions and tastes of large populations and depend upon the use of tools like questionnaire based surveys, phone surveys, and email responses. There is little interaction between surveyors and respondents and corrective elements need to be built into the survey sheets and the statistical analysis methods. Qualitative methods are however used where the research is of a more subjective and interpretative nature and where answers are sought to â€Å"what†, â€Å"how† and â€Å"why† questions, and are thus more suitable for this dissertation (Darlington Scott, 2002). The advantages of qualitative research often prevail over the risk of missing the population or audience. â€Å"It has a lower cost, is faster, and has an opportunity for more in depth analysis† (Darlington Scott, 2002, p 27). It is also more realistic and creates superior privacy and accurateness. The research fashions an enhanced recognition of results and data from complete small populations can be obtained through its usage (Darlington Scott, 2002). It is proposed to get qualitative information from a company â€Å"X† based in Saudi Arabia. , engaged in the distribution of newspapers, journals, and magazines. Headquartered at Riyadh, the company has offices in a number of in other Saudi Arabian cities, and is a large employer. It is proposed to get questionnaire based information from 15 % of the firm’s employees and conduct a detailed one to one interview with the owner of the company. The questionnaires will also need to be designed with care incorporating cross validating questions to weed out contradictions.

Construction of Investment Portfolio

Construction of Investment Portfolio To: Mr Bernard Riemann From: Investment Manager Date: 28 November 2007 Subject: Construction of Investment Portfolio Overview: The investment portfolio recommended is based on the discussion with you. The key points that emerged from our discussions are as follows: Total investment required to be made is  £1,000,000 The portfolio should include at least 5 equity securities and at least 3 debt securities. Besides these some other investment products may also be included. The portfolio break up should be at a minimum: Equity investments:  £400,000 Investment in Debt securities:  £200,000 Investment in other products:  £350,000 Cash:  £50,000 You do not want to invest in ‘very risky’ investments, but are willing to accept some additional risk if there is adequate compensation in the form of increased returns Investment will be made for a medium to long term. Two months are considered as medium to long term. Investment in the recommended portfolio will be made on 28th November 2007 Your total wealth is approximately  £500,000. This includes: Business:  £3,000,000 Residential Property:  £800,000 Loans to Relatives:  £200,000 Amounts proposed to invest:  £1,000,000 Suggested Portfolio You are advised to adopt a lower risk and a more diversified institutional approach. This will require you to have a portfolio of assets. In general, riskier investments, such as equities provide the best returns over the long term, but they are also most volatile. However, because you are only planning to invest in short to medium term, you will not be much affected by the volatility. Nevertheless, combining different types of investment in a portfolio can help you minimise and variations especially if the securities in your portfolio are non-correlated (i.e. their prices move independently). On the basis of above information and the investing assumptions (Refer appendix A), the most appropriate asset model for you appears to be: Medium Risk Individual securities and investment products You are therefore advised to make your investments in the securities given in the table below: Asset Class Investment Sector Amount ( £) Percentage of Total Equity Securities (FTSE 100) British Airways Airlines 76,260 7.6% Land Sec (R.E.I.T.) Real Estate 94,250 9.4% Barclays Banking 78,600 7.9% Sage Group Technology 77,480 7.7% Morrison Supermarkets Retail 73,255 7.3% Debt Securities and Funds 9% Treasury Loan Bond 2008 Bond 100,000 10% SWIP Defensive Gilt Securities 100,000 10% HSBC Gilt Fixed Interest Inc 150,000 15% New Star UK Property A Acc Property Funds 150,000 15% Cash 100,155 10% Total 1,000,000 100% (Source: Yahoo finance) Rationale for the selection of each security/product (Refer Appendix B) Equity Securities The equity securities are all FTSE 100 securities. These securities belong to five diverse sectors, namely, Airlines, Real Estate, Banking, Retail and a sunrise sector of Technology. These sectors are not correlated thus reduce the portfolio risk. The rationale for selection of these and not other FTSE 100 securities are: British Airways Plc. is the leading airline in the United Kingdom and is one of the biggest in the world. It also has holdings in other airlines, such as the Australian, Qantas, and the Spanish Iberia. In addition the airline has recently signed a partnership with the American Airlines and companies such as Cathay Pacific Airways and Finnair. Therefore, it has bright prospects. Though the price trend in the medium term is bearish volatility has been increasing during last month. The Property sector is represented by Land Securities. Land Securities has a huge amount of real estate all over the UK. It manages a series of properties. The company has played a major role in transforming cities such as Birmingham, Canterbury, Bristol and York by working closely with the city authorities, and with the support of the government. The market is bearish but volatility is increasing. One may make massive profits in the short term. The banking or financial sector is represented in the portfolio by Barclays. Barclays began its operations in the 17th century in London. It is an international bank with 800 global branches. It is a strong entity in 60 international countries, in Europe, the United States, Africa, and Asia. The group remains a very important member of the UK banking community. Even though the Banking sector may have not performed very well in the past, its prospects are good. An investment portfolio should have at least one category of securities from this sector. Though medium term price trend for Barclays is bearish the boom conditions may benefit the portfolio as its volatility has been increasing. Sage group represents the sunrise sector in the portfolio. It is a British company that is considered a leader in management software sector. It has its presence in all major European countries and India, South Africa, Australia, the Middle East, and North America. Sunrise industry presents extremely good prospects. The Morrison Supermarkets Group represents the retail sector in the portfolio. The group specializes in supermarket distribution, offering quality products and increasing diversity. It has purchased Safeway, an owner of more than 500 supermarkets in Great-Britain. Medium term price trend is bullish. This market keeps a relative behaviour greater 16.232 than FTSE 100 INDEX. Volatility has been increasing during last month. It is a good time to make profit in the short term. Debt Securities/Funds 9% Treasury Loan Bond 2008 are Gilt edged bonds issued by the UK Government that will mature in 2008. These bonds offer the investor a fixed interest rate of 9% for a predetermined, set time. These bonds are especially recommended as you require a fixed, predictable income. These bonds also ensure a guaranteed return of capital. Though these securities like shares are prone to fluctuation, they are much more secure. Though the bond has a redemption date (July 2008), it can be sold at any time for the present market price. Investors are not tied down and there are no penalties for selling the stock. Gilts prove to be the best option in times such as the current times when interest rates are high and look likely to fall. Due to a decline in the interest rates the value of the stock will rise and can be sold profitably. SWIP Defensive Gilt Securities and also HSBC Gilt Fixed Interest securities have been included in the portfolio as they will provide a regular income. The investments do not have a minimum or maximum investment period. New Star UK Property is another place where investment should be made. Though in recent times a few large fund holders have got out of UK commercial property funds, for the next one year the fund is expected to give more or less stable returns. As you want a return of  £500 per month, the portfolio requires that  £100,155 should be deposited in the bank. This will carry an interest of 5.75% (at the current rate) and will meet your requirement for  £500 per month for the tuition fee of his niece. Expected returns of the portfolio over the two month investment period The portfolio is expected to give a return of 1.26% in the two months (Refer xls in Appendix C and E). Each month the portfolio will give  £500 per month from the cash deposited in the bank. Risk attached to the portfolio The risk percentage is 0.98% for the entire portfolio (Refer xls in Appendix C). Thus at no point of time investment portfolio will fall below the acceptable value over a two-month period. Total risk of 0.98% indicates how much risk your portfolio will bear over the two month period. This risk is primarily due to high level of expected variance in the share prices of British airways shares and also shares of Morrison Supermarkets. The debt securities and funds have an almost negligible variance and standard deviation. Therefore, this evens out the excessive risk in equity securities. Since, debt securities do not have much risk, the individual equity securities need to be closely monitored for risk. The easiest way is to monitor their beta levels. A beta measures a stocks volatility relative to the market. Stocks with betas of 1 move up or down more or less in along with the market. Stocks with betas of less than 1 tend to be less volatile than the market as a whole. Volatile stocks have betas higher than 1. However, betas too should be examined with care as if the market itself is volatile, then a stock with a beta of 1 or less still could be very risky. In conclusion, you should take the above portfolio as a recommendation. The market may change very fast and therefore needs to be closely monitored. APPENDICES Appendix A: Assumptions for the Report Mr. Riemann does not have any industry preferences It should be 10 asset portfolio The customer would be unhappy if the investment portfolio were to fall more than 10% in value over a two-month period. The customer would expect a monthly return of around 1%. The customer expects at least  £50,000 of the total  £1,000,000 to be retained as cash The economic conditions are defined as: Boom 0.6 normal 0.3 and recession 0.1 For equity securities only use FTSE 100 and 250 and for debt use popular markets. UK Bonds have been preferred. Appendix B: Movement of Equity Securities (Source: Yahoo finance) Appendix C Appendix D: Other Documentary Evidence British Airways Land Securities Barclays (Source: Yahoo finance) Morrison Supermarkets (Source: Yahoo finance) Sage Group (Source: Yahoo finance) Std Lf UK Gilt Rtl Inc SWIP Defensive Gilt A Inc HSBC Gilt Fixed Int Inc (Source: Yahoo finance) New Star UK Property A Acc (Source: Yahoo finance) Appendix E: Calculation of the Return under Boom, Normal Conditions and Recession Return on equity securities Return under normal conditions has been calculated. This is based on the movement of the stock prices. The return on the equity stock will arise from sale of shares at a higher price over the near future. On the basis of the past data the share prices under normal conditions have been estimated two months from November 2007. The % increase in the share prices is taken as the return during normal times. Variance in share prices are thereafter taken into account and the boom and recession values are calculated. Return on debt securities and funds This is based on the three year total return percentage. Two months percentage is worked out and then adjustments are made for variance. Return on 9% Treasury Loan Bond 2008 The bond pays a 9% coupon (divided into two semi-annual payments) and matures in July 2008. The bond has been bought at par. The income 9% per annum on the investment will be there until maturity. Return for 2 months = (9% / 12)*2 =1.5% If an amount less than par were paid for the return would be=Par/purchase price * coupon = running yield References The Financial Times, Markets Equities, accessed from http://www.ft.com/markets/equities Yahoo! Finance, FTSE 100 Companies, accessed from http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/bc?s=%5eftset=c= Barclays Financial Planning, Investment Planning, accessed from http://www.barclays.co.uk/financialplanning/investment-planning.html Investment Planning, accessed from http://www.bestinvest.co.uk/planning/portplan/index.htm

Black Holes Essay -- Essays Papers

Black Holes Every day we look out upon the night sky, wondering and dreaming of what lies beyond our planet. The universe that we live in is so diverse and unique, and it interests us to learn about all the variance that lies beyond our grasp. Within this marvel of wonders, our universe holds a mystery that is very difficult to understand because of the complications that arise when trying to examine and explore the principles of space. That mystery happens to be that of the ever elusive, black hole. This essay will hopefully give you the knowledge and understanding of the concepts, properties, and processes involved with the space phenomenon of the black hole. It will describe how a black hole is generally formed, how it functions, and the effects it has on the universe. By definition, a black hole is a region where matter collapses to infinite density, and where, as a result, the curvature of space-time is extreme. Moreover, the intense gravitational field of the black hole prevents any light or other electromagnetic radiation from escaping. But where lies the â€Å"point of no return† at which any matter or energy is doomed to disappear from the visible universe? The black hole’s surface is known as the event horizon. Behind this horizon, the inward pull of gravity is overwhelming and no information about the black hole’s interior can escape to the outer universe. Applying the Einstein Field Equations to collapsing stars, Kurt Schwarzschild discovered the critical radius for a given mass at which matter would collapse into an infinitely dense state known as a singularity. At the center of the black hole lies the singularity, where matter is crushed to infinite density, the pull of gravity is infinitely strong, and space-time has infinite curvature. Here it is no longer meaningful to speak of space and time, much less space-time. Jumbled up at the singularity, space and time as we know them cease to exist. At the singularity, the laws of physics break down, including Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity. This is known as Quantum Gravity. In this realm, space and time are broken apart and cause and effect cannot be unraveled. Even today, there is no satisfactory theory for what happens at and beyond the rim of the singularity. A rotating black hole has an interesting feature, called a Cauchy horizon... ...rams were made showing how astronomers believe that if somehow you were to survive through the center of the black hole that there would be enough gravitational force to possible warp you to another end in the universe or possibly to another universe. The creative deas that can be hypothesized from this discovery are endless. Although our universe is filled with many unexplained, glorious phenomena, it is our duty to continue exploring them and to continue learning, but in the process we must not take any of it for granted. As you have read, black holes are a major topic within our universe and they contain so much curiosity that they could possibly hold unlimited uses. Black holes are a sensation that astronomers are still very puzzled with. It seems that as we get closer to solving their existence and functions, we only end up with more and more questions. Although these questions just lead us into more and more unanswered problems we seek and find refuge into them, dreaming that maybe one far off distant day, we will understand all the conceptions and we will be able to use the universe to our advantage and go where only our dreams could take us.

How One Ought To Behave When Wronged Essay

Man being good or evil by nature has long been subject to speculations. While some schools of thought advocate that man is good by nature, some argue that man is innately evil. Perception of what’s good and bad also differs among cultures — differing cultures have differing sets of morals and values. What may be frowned at in one region of the world could be tolerable in other parts. Labeling of a person’s actions and reactions is dependent on a belief system that has been practiced early on. This paper will focus on one of those early advocates of man being good by nature and how thatgoodness should reflect in his dealings with persons whom he believes have wronged him. This paper will discuss the â€Å"germs† advocated by Chinese philosopher Mengzi [c. 370-300 BCE] or Mencius, who was a disciple of the Confucian school of thought — that man is innately good. Mencius argues that man has an innate sense of morality, a born quality of doing what is good. His argument is summarized in this statement: Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies. Let he give an example of what I mean when I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child’s parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from the feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs. For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler. Those who know how to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents. 1 It is clear that Mencius meant man to cultivate four values in order to be humane. By having a compassionate heart; a heart of shame; a heart of courtesy and modesty; and a heart of right and wrong, can only a person reach his full potential in order to affect his family and society in positive and fruitful ways. In Mencius’ teaching of having a heart of compassion, he suggests that instead of entertaining negative thoughts against those whom man perceived to have wronged him, man should strive to understand the other party’s possible suffering that lead him to digress from the path of goodness. Man should tap into his inner self and bring forth compassion to understand and help the bad person. As for the person’s becoming bad, Mencius argues that it is not the fault of his human nature, but of a void that is present in that person’s life â€Å"When we do not, by what we do, realize what we desire, we must turn inward, and examine ourselves in every point. When a man’s person is correct, the whole empire will turn to him with recognition and submission. â€Å"2 By being compassionate, the wronged person shows the offender his understanding of the other person’s pain, and his willingness to alleviate that suffering. If man is able to do this, society and humanity will flourish and further spread of evil will be prevented.

Learning Essay

Learning is a complex process that involves the acquisition of knowledge and skills through instruction, which modifies the behavior of man. (Merriam-Webster, 2008) Moreover, learning is the act of obtaining new information by undergoing educational instruction, reading, and other ways of gaining facts and information. Two types of learning characterize the process of acquiring information for learners. These two types of learning include cognitive or perceptual learning and behavioral or stimulus-response learning. These two shall be discussed in the following paragraphs in order to explicate the concept of learning and the role that cognition and behavior play in the process. Behavior plays a significant role in learning. Interest in learning, for instance, given that interest is a behavior, increases potential to accomplish academic success. Primarily, interest in learning as a behavior motivates people to attend programs in educational institutions, which lead to classroom instruction and learning. Interest is one efficient predictor of success in students. (Renningner, et. al. , 1992) There are established theories of learning which support the significant role of behavior in learning. Classical conditioning, authored by Ivan Pavlov, follows the theory of stimulus-response behavior. When applied to learning, the theory suggests that a particular stimulus influences response. Moreover, the theory explicates how behavior is developed, and in turn how certain behaviors influence learning. Basically, if a person is motivated to learn within the classroom environment, his behavior leans toward learning. This behavior produces desirable learning outcomes from the individual. (Staats, et. al. , 1963) The theory of classical conditioning has evolved throughout the years, and B. F. Skinner developed the concept of operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is similar to Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning, such that both theories suggest behavior as an integral part of learning. However, operant conditioning relies on the manipulation of stimulus or external factors in order to influence the behavior of learners. Positive reinforcements for desirable learning behavior motivates individuals to learn, while negative reinforcements that are administered for negative learning behavior reduces its occurrence. Reinforcements act as consequences to actions, whether positive or negative, which influences how individuals behave. (Huitt & Hummel, 1997) Behavioral learning may be applied in the classroom through motivation in the form of praises and rewards, and punishment. For instance, in order to arouse the interest of learners to attend school everyday, teachers should give incentives and punishments such as checking the attendance every day and giving rewards for learners who have complete attendance. On the other hand, learners who are always absent or late, are given rewards such as putting them in detention, extra work in the form of quizzes, assignments, etc. As students learn the value of being present every day because of the rewards, merits, and acknowledgements that they receive every day, they are able to understand why there is a need to attend classes and are able to adapt the behavior of coming to class regularly. For those who are always absent, thus, receiving demerits and punishments, they learn that in order to avoid being punished and receive rewards instead, they should go to class on time each day. This idea changes the behavior of students who are always absent. The basics of behavioral learning delve into the complex personality of learners and seek to understand the motivational techniques and strategies that incite the desire to learn from individuals. Determining these motivational techniques and strategies allows teachers to adjust their instructional techniques within the learning environment in order to adapt to the desires of learners and manipulate these desires to incite desirable learning outcomes. The secondary objective of behavioral learning is to lessen undesirable learning behaviors. Cognitive learning does not simply rely on stimulus and the response of learning in order to acquire necessary information for the learners. The mechanisms inside an individual’s brain form the basic concepts underlying cognitive learning. These mechanisms are called cognitive processes. Cognitive processes include the acquisition of knowledge and new information and manipulating these acquired knowledge and information to form concepts and ideas that are meaningful. (Think Quest) For instance, the concept of the color wheel is learned by determining all the different colors that make up the wheel, such as red, blue, green, orange, violet, etc. If colors are identified by their names and their appearance, the individual also learns to categorize primary colors from secondary colors, and secondary colors from tertiary colors, or tertiary colors from neutral, etc. Through this information, the concept of mixing primary colors to form secondary colors, etc. is learned. Cognitive processes that are involved in learning the concept of colors in the color wheel include observation, analysis and interpretation. Moreover, cognitive learning relies on the senses, such as hearing, sight, feeling, etc. , reading and comprehension, experience, analysis, observation, among others, in order for individuals to learn. (Think Quest) This is supported by theories authored by Piaget and Vygotsky. The socio-constructivist and socio-cultural theories relate cognition to learning, such that learning takes place through social interaction. Funderstanding, 2001) For instance, problem solving which entails knowledge and experience is influenced by social interaction with other people. A learner’s problem solving skills is derived from interpretation of his cultural background, how he sees other people and the world that he lives in. Basically, an individual’s schema, which is used to solve his problems, depends solely on social interaction, his experiences , and how he interprets these experiences.